Topic 1: Introduction To Language - English Language 1 Notes Form 5 & 6

Topic 1: Introduction To Language - English Language 1 Notes Form 5 & 6

What is language?

The term Language can be defined in different ways as follows:

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols and signs that are conventionally used for human communication

OR

Language is the conventional system of arbitrary vocal symbols used by human beings for communication

KEY TERMS IN THE DEFINITION OF LANGUAGE

Language is a system

A system means a group of interrelated parts that function as a whole for a particular purpose

Any system has fixed rules that have to be followed. So language is a system because it is governed by some fixed rules for it to be used.

If the system is not followed, then we say the language is not correct.

For example;

(i) she has eaten some food.

(ii) Food she eaten has some.

The second sentence is not correct because the rule has not been followed.

Language is Arbitrary

Language is arbitrary because there is no direct relationship between words and what they mean. (Referent)

The whole process of forming a language is done haphazardly. Hence a person hearing an English word for the first time cannot understand the meaning of a word unless he / she is told by the English speaker

An Introduction To Language

Language is vocal

Language is vocal because the ideas are mostly transmitted through speaking (orally). Even when the language is written down, letters or other graphics stand for sounds. Therefore language is primarily vocal.

Language is Human

Language is human because human beings are the only species in the world that use language in their communication.

Other organisms communicate but their communication is not language.

Language is symbol

A symbol is something that stands for something else. Language is made by symbols because it consists of words. These words represent objects, ideas, concepts and people

For example a word “man” represents an adult male or “mother” represents one’s female parent

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Characteristics Of Language

Linguists mention some characteristics that are unique to language.

These are the ones that distinguish language from    other sounds/noises made by animals. Animal’s ways of communication are not regarded as language because they lack these qualities.

Among them are:-

DUALITY

Language has two levels. The level of sound and that of meaning. For example the sounds /t/ and /i/ may give eat and teas depend on the way they are arranged.

Therefore duality is the property of language by which language allows simultaneous existence of meaning and sound.

PRODUCTIVITY/CREATIVITY

Human language is productive because it is possible to combine their structure (words, phrases) to produce new utterances never been heard before but which are understood by the speaker and hearer without difficulty. Eg black + board = blackboard (a new word)

Animal communication is not productive because the sounds produced are always the same and in the same way.

SPECIALISATION

A language of a particular society is special in that society’s environment and situations.

It reflects the physical realities of the environment that surrounds it.

Hence a language of society living in a certain environment tends to have more words for things found there than in a language found in another environment. E.g. one language could have many words for say “rice” than the other language depending on the environment.

Animal communication does have special sounds according to the different environment.

INTERCHANGEABILITY

Human language allows communicators to exchange positions. At one time the communicator is a speaker and a listener at another. For instance when one person is talking, the other is listening. He/she becomes a speaker and the person who was previously a speaker becomes the listener. This is not obvious in animal communication.

REFLEXIVENESS

Human language can talk about itself. For example we are now using language to talk about language. Animals cannot cry about their cries. Therefore this property differentiates human language from animal communication.

Characteristics Of Language

DISCRETENESS

The sounds in human language are meaningful distinctly. For example the words “bad” and “bud” differ from each other only because they differ in vowel sound.

Therefore in human language, there is possibility for one to identify individual sounds like /v/, /a/, /j/, /i/ and /p/.

It is the discrete sounds of human language that helps us to distinguish between “pig” and “big”, “pack” and “bag”

CULTURAL TRANSMISSION

Human language is not genetically transmitted from one person to another but through cultural activities. This through acquiring or learning it depending on environment to which one is exposed.

Animal communications are natural and not cultural.

ARBITRARY

Human language is arbitrary because:

1. There is no natural or direct relationship between the symbols (words) and the referents (concepts or objects meant)
2. There is no any deliberate choosing of the sounds of words to be used in the language

• This leads to languages having different words
• Animal language lacks this property

DISPLACEMENT

Human language is capable of talking about present, past and future aspects and other arbitrary concepts.

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The Origin Of Language

LANGUAGE AND A LANGUAGE

Linguistically language refers to a conventional system of arbitrary vocal symbols used by human beings for communication.

So here the word language is generic i.e. so general observing the general universal characteristics of language

But a language refers to a specific language used by certain people e.g. Pare, Kurya, English etc.

THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE

The question of when and how language emerged has been debatable but at least there are some  theories given by linguists to suggest the origin of language.

Among the theories are:

The Bow- Wow Theory

This suggests that language began by people imitation of sounds of animals and nature around

This led to emergence of onomatopoeic words like moo, mew, roar etc. as evidence.

• The weakness here is that not all words are onomatopoeia (i.e. result from sound imitation)

The Pooh Pooh Theory

This argues that language developed from cries of pain, rages etc. as expression of strong feelings

• This theory does not explain how the complex organization of language developed.

The Yo-he-ho Theory

This explains that the language arose as outcome of noises which people made while doing their physical labour.

For instance when lifting a big log they produced sounds calling for the effort and gradually true words like up, let’s go, lift, emerged.

What is convincing here is that language resulted from the need to organize society and communication. So that might have been the early forms (the noises).

The Ding Dong Theory

This argues that early man’s mental makeup was such that a sound representation was registered whenever mental process encountered any experience.

So what was registered in the minds of the early people was coded into sounds.

This theory fails to explain how the complex organised language developed.

The Gestural Theory (The Ta-ta Theory)

This suggests gesture to be the origin of language. That in the beginning man used gestures (eg hands) to communicate but later on when man started to use tools. His hands were unfree for  communication and so speech unconsciously replaced those gestures.

The Origin Of Language

KNOWING A LANGUAGE

Knowing a language means that one posses linguistic knowledge of it.

This includes:

• Knowing its sound system (phonology)

One should able to speak correctly and also understand the sounds produced  by other members using that language.

• Knowing its vocabulary (lexicons)

People speak in sequence of sounds in acceptable combinations that are meaningful. So one has to know the words used in a language and their meanings.

• Knowing how to organize words to form sentences

A sentence is not formed by putting words anyhow. The words are organised in rules that are acceptable and one should know them.

1. You are an excellent teacher.
2. An teacher you excellent are.

• Here the second sentence is incorrect.
• Knowing language therefore involves knowing its sounds (phonemes), the rules of forming words and their meanings and the rules of forming sentences.

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Functions Of Language

Here we answer the question “what is the language used for?”

The following are among the common functions of language;

Communication function

Language is used to facilitate the delivery of information or thoughts from one person to another. For example in class a teacher conveys thoughts/ ideas to students.

Communication is the most dominant function of language.

Phatic function

Here the language focuses on establishing contacts, relations and maintaining good social relationships

Expressions such as good afternoon, how do you do, hi and other forms of greetings are common in daily interactions of the people.

Therefore this function does not focus on communicating but it maintains good social relationships among the people.

Referential (Descriptive) function

This function focuses on talking about facts or experiences.

E.g.

• Amina was born in 1986
• The sun is hot today.

Poetic function

This is the artistic use of language. In literature for example meanings of words are narrowed or widened by using figures of speech.

E.g. – Receive tones of greetings from Mama  Mwashambwa.

• He was as black as charcoal.
• Jane is indeed an angel of this village.

Regulatory function

Language is sometimes used to warn or impart discipline into the minds of the people

For example, political leaders use this language when asking for votes. Again religious leaders use this function as they preach

Performative function/ Declarative function

It is employed in occasions like wedding ceremonies, church masses and court of law.

This is the function that changes the state of affairs in the world. For instance when an authorized person declares, “I pronounce you husband and wife”, “I sentence you to seven years imprisonment”, “I baptize you in the name of the father, the son and the Holy Spirit,” “I officially declare the meeting open”; the state automatically becomes so.

Therefore, here the language is said to have performed or declared.

Recording function

This is the function of language which serves as something important in the future. Language is used for documentation/ recording. For example the language of the Bible, Koran and that of legal documents serve this purpose.

Emotive function

Language is used to express personal emotions. For example interjections such as ; oh!, wow! And gosh! Are used to express people’s emotions.

Metalinguistic function

This is the function of language whereby language is used to talk about itself.

For instance we use metalinguistic function to describe different aspects of language such as word classes, nature of language, pronunciation and so on.

Functions Of Language

Also Geoffery Leech, who lived in 1936-2014 years, was a specialist in English language linguistics. He has published over 30 books and 120 different papers on semantics, stylistics, pragmatics, grammar, and other directions. He played an important role in the development of English and in the overall understanding of language and its functions. Studying at college, you surely have to read about his research and the 5 functions of language that he distinguished.

The Informational Function

This function can be considered the most important among others because it is responsible for describing things and delivering messages that provide readers or listeners with new information. This function is used to:

• Affirm or deny propositions, as in science or the statement of a fact.
• Describe the world or some reasons for it (what state of affairs has occurred, what might have led to this situation, etc.).
• Convey a truth value, and therefore contribute to logic.

The examples of the informational function can be found in encyclopedias, formal articles, textbooks, manuals, etc.

The Expressive Function

People use this function of language each time when they need to share their feelings. When your goal is to express attitude, it is not necessarily to deliver any specific information but the words that show your emotions.

The simplest examples of expressive language are various exclamations, swear words, words of admiration, gratitude, etc. This function can be used separately from the previous one since it doesn't deliver a message; it is aimed to express feelings and impressions.

The expressive function of language helps readers to receive the bigger picture of the characters' personalities and their emotions. If the informational function is used in encyclopedia articles, this one is common for fiction literature and poetry.

Every time you say a phrase like "I really hate this song," you don't provide your interlocutor with specific information about this song, you just share your personal, subjective opinion.

The Directive Function

This function is somewhat similar to the previous one because the general meaning of the phrase is not as important here as affective and situational meanings. People use it to induce specific reactions or actions. It can be a command, a request, for example, "For your own sake, close the door".

This function is primarily common for interpersonal interaction. What is interesting about it is that the idea expressed by an addresser doesn't matter pretty much. We can define whether it achieved the target only with a reaction of the addressee to this phrase. Speaking about our example, the phrase "Close the door" makes no sense when the door is still open.

Sometimes directive phrases can have several meanings. For example, if you say "I'm thirsty", it means both information about you and a request for water. It can also be interpreted as an expression of your feelings, so, according to Geoffery Leech, even one short sentence is able to represent 3 functions of language at the same time.

The Aesthetic Function

Leech doesn't distinguish any specific purpose of this function and considers its words and sentences to be linguistic artifacts. They don't convey messages or requests but serve as a tool of poetic art. Just like an expressive function, this one can be used in fiction literature, poetry, music, movies, and other art directions where it is necessary to show beauty.

The interesting fact about this function is that its implementation depends on specific cultural norms. Hermann Jacobsohn had been studying this issue in 1933 by comparing different poems and diaries to show that different generations have different methods to apply the examples of aesthetic function.

The Phatic Function

The last language function, according to Geoffery Leech, is the phatic one. It has a primary purpose to establish social relationships, to maintain a conversation. A good example from British culture is small talk when people don't aim to discuss a topic in detail, to express their feelings, to command or request something.

They use the language to interact with other people. Of course, their words can share some useful information, for example, when discussing the weather, stock market fluctuations, parenting, etc., but it is not necessary.

Other Language Functions That You Should Consider

Obviously, there were many other linguists who were exploring the language and its functions. For example, Roman Jakobson (1896-1982) has developed his own list, providing a couple of other functions, for example:

• Referential function — is used to describe the object and its state, specific situations.
• Poetic function — exists as is in the poetic genre to distinguish it from others.
• Emotive functions — expresses emotions in exclamations and interjections.
• Conative function — is focused on the addressee and has an imperative character.
• Phatic function — is aimed to "warm-up" the dialogue, to start the conversation, or to continue it.
• Metalinguistic function — is used when there is a need to use the language to describe itself.

As you can see, when Leech has the one expressive function to share emotions, Jakobson divides it into two separate functions: the poetic one and the emotive one.

There are also some functions developed by Michael Halliday (1925-2018). He had been exploring child language development and distinguished such functions as instrumental, regulatory, interactional, and personal to satisfy the physical, emotional, and social needs of children. And such functions like heuristic, imaginative, and representational he described as the use of language with a primary goal to come to terms with the child's environment.

Studying linguistics at college, you'll learn different language functions that are used in verbal communication, written communication, and other forms. It is necessary to have an overall understanding of linguistic research but to take into account the epoch, society, background of different linguists that formed their views.

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The Significance Of Language To A Society

Language is essentially a system of communication where sound or signs convey objects, actions and ideas. The history of language dated back many thousands of years. In initial era, language was mainly spoken not written.

But the improvement of the writing medium and later the printing system went a long way is the indulgence of knowledge and without which individuals would have remained in the dark about the ways of life and the thought processes of their ancestors.

Language is the key to human lives. They can eradicate misunderstandings by using it as a tool to transfer communication among people.

Language has a number of significances to play in a society.

Among them are:

Language as a unifying factor

Language unifies people in a society or country/nation. It inspires a sense of oneness. For example how Kiswahili unifies people i.e. many tribes in Tanzania.

As a factor for national identity

There are many elements that make a particular society distinct from others; like their types of food, dressing etc. but language gives an identity that is more specific and obvious.

So language remains as one permanent mark of an identity.

As a factor for social development

Social development depends largely on language. It enables people to interact and work together towards the intended goal.

Through it, the leaders are also able to give directives in the efforts like building the schools, hospitals, roads etc for development

A s a factor for social stratification

The class to which a member of society belongs is determined by the way they use language among other things.

People of different classes use language differently in terms of their choice of vocabulary, pronunciation, intonation and other aspects of language.

Language can distinguish different classes like educated and non-educated, villagers and urban dwellers, the rich and the poor etc.

As a reflection of culture

Language reflects different customs, traditions and beliefs. It shows how people of given community define the world surrounding them.

For example the word ugali is found in Kiswahili but it lacks its equivalent in English because the native speakers of English do not eat ugali as their food. So ugali is not part of their culture.

As the medium of communication

Language facilitates the transfer of information from one place to another. Radios, Televisions and newspaper use language to give information.

Language Enhances Cultural Diversity

Language is the foundation upon which societies are built. By understanding different cultures and languages, individuals can become more open-minded and appreciative of the diversity among people.

It helps promote acceptance, understanding and tolerance for those who may be different from you in terms of race, religion or culture. This is especially important in a globalized world where it has become increasingly important to embrace cultural diversity.

Language Enables Knowledge Sharing

Language is the key to knowledge sharing and information exchange. It allows different individuals to communicate their ideas and experiences with each other, thus helping create a vibrant and diverse community of thinkers.

By learning about various cultures through language, individuals can gain new insights and perspectives. This can allow them to broaden their understanding of the world in which they live.

Language Connects Generations

Language is the thread that helps connect generations together by bridging gaps in age, culture and experience.

It allows people to share their knowledge, values and beliefs with each other and understand different perspectives more easily.

Language is thus a precious gift that helps us connect with our past, present and future. Learning new languages can help us stay connected to the world around us and create meaningful relationships with people from all walks of life.

THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication

Simply refers to the process of transferring and interpreting message from a sender to a receiver. The process of human communication involves:-

The message: this is what is to be communicated. It may be ideas, feelings signs etc

The sender (encoder): this is a person who delivers the idea and then encodes it. (put it into symbols that are understood by the hearer).

The signals: the symbols (written or spoken) that have communicative value.

The channel: is the medium through which the message is passed. It may be through face to face, telephone etc.

The receiver (decoder): the one who receives the message. She/he decodes (turns the symbols spoken or written into meaning)

The feedback: is the response from the receiver, in action or words that show that the message has reached the receiver. It may be actions like coming, turning, signs like gesture and facial expression.

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Language Variation / Varieties

Language variation implies that there are language varieties.

One language may vary from another in aspects such as phonology, grammar, semantic and syntax.

Even within a language there are variations.

Two variations are:

1. Variation according to users (Dialect).
2. Variation according to use (Register).

DIALECT

Dialect refers to variation of language according to users. This may be due to one’s region of origin, their social class or their unique way of using language.

Therefore dialect is language variation according to certain characteristics of its users.

FACTORS FOR DIALECTISATION (VARIATION)

Among the factors for variation of language are:

1. REGIONAL DIFFERENCES

When people living in one area get split to live in diastant areas they will develop different features that may differentiate them. Eg pronunciation of words

2. SOCIAL CLASS

Within the same society people would differ on their use of the same language caused by their social classes like educational level and so forth

So an educated person will differ from uneducated one on the way they use language.

3. INDIVIDUALITY

Each person has his/her unique use of language. Things like voice quality, pause, rhythm etc differentiate a person from other users of the same language

4. IFLUENCE FROM OTHER LANGUAGES

This could be connected to regional differences in that one of the dispersed group could come intop contact with other language(s) that will influence its pronunciation, vocabulary etc

5. AGE DIFFERENCES

People of different age have different language habits.  For instance the youth tend to use slang which is less preferred by elders

6. OCCUPATION

People who do different jobs have different language styles. For instance lawyers use complex sentences and difficult vocabulary which may not be used by teachers.

TYPES OF DIALECTS

1. Regional Dialects

Regional dialects are the ones that identify themselves by the places in which they are found. For example West African English is different from Australian English.

The systematic study of regional dialects is known as Dialectology.

The demarcating lines separating areas speaking different dialects are called Isoglosses.

2. Social Dialect (sociolect)

This is the dialect that results from the social classes existing  in the society. Eg between the educated and non-educated, the rich and the poor etc.

Also there differences caused by jargons that differentiate people according to their occupations etc.

3. Idiolect (Individuality)

Is an individual way of using language that differentiates  one from other speakers of the same language. Eg the voice quality, pitch and rhythm. Such qualities may help one to recognize the speaker even without seeing him/her.

• British English and Standard American English are examples of English language dialects. Here are some of linguistic differences between British and American English.

BRITISH ENGLISH     AMERICAN ENGLISH

Spelling Differences (orthography)

Favour                     favor

Labour                    labor

Centre                     center

Litre                        liter

Theatre                   theater

Tyre                       tire

Programme             program

Defence                  defense

Catalogue                catalog

Pronunciation

Hereunder are some of words pronounced differently

Schedule

News

Produce

Vocabulary (lexicon)

Examples

Maize                 corn

Lorry                   truck

Railway               railroad

Chemist               dentist

Sitting room          living room

Elevator                lift

Petrol                   gas

Dustbin                garbage can

Side walk              path

Grammar

• Repetition of the subject one                                                  Eg.   One cannot succeed unless one works hard
• no repetition of subject one                                             Eg. one cannot succeed unless he/she works hard

OTHER LANGUAGE VARIETIES

PIDGINS

A pidgin is a simplified language which has developed among people whose native language are different. It arises to fulfill certain limited communicative needs like in trade

A pidgin does not have native speakers.

Most pidgins are based on European language. Eg Chinese pidgin

TYPES OF PIDGINS

There are two main types of pidgin namely

• Temporal pidgin
• Extended pidgin

TEMPORAL PIDGIN

Is the one that lasts for a short time. For example pidgin that arises during wars when soldiers of different language  backgrounds meet. Such pidgin expires when the war ends.

EXTENDED PIDGIN

This is the type of pidgin that develops in multilingual areas. Ie places that have many languages

Eg. Tok pisin is a good example of English pidgin used in Papua New Guinea

CHARACTERISTICS OF PIDGINS

It has limited number of vocabulary. So signs are always used

It has a reduced grammatical structure and no many functions like tenses, mood and voice

There is no concord between subject and predicate Eg.  Pusi dring di milk ie pussy drinks the milk

It has no native speakers

There is simplified pronunciation eg ch, sh, and s could be pronounced the same

Not used in official matters

CREOLES

A creole is a pidgin that has acquired people who speak it as their first language.

Krio is an example of an English based creole spoken in sierra leone. Also there is Jamaican creole spoken in Jamaica.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CREOLE

Creoles have more advanced vocabulary than pidgins

The grammar of creole is more advanced that of pidgin

There are no forms of BE. Eg.He a good man ie. He is a good man

Subjects and verbs have no concord in present tense Eg. Juma run fast ie Juma runs fast

There is no “s” for making plural in nouns Eg. Two pen ie two pens

Negation is formed by using “no” in the sentence Eg. I no understand ie I don’t understand

There is no past tense marker Eg He go yesterday ie He went yesterday, She take that last week ie She took that last week

REGISTERS

Register refers to variation of language according to use.

It can also be defined as socially defined variety of language like legal or  scientific language.

People who do different activities use the same language differently for example teachers use language differently from journalists in their areas of work. So teachers and journalists use different registers.

Registers are characterized by the use of special vocabulary, phonological and syntactic features.

STANDARD LANGUAGE

Is the language which is accepted officially throughout the speech community.

It is the dialect that is regarded to be a model in the language community.

CHARACTERISTICS OF STANDARD LANGUAGE

A standard dialect is non-localized. i.e. it is not restricted to a particular area

It is taught in schools as a model variety

It is considered to be the dialect of upper class

It the dialect that dominates the media locally and worldwide

It is used in international for a like AU and UN conferences

NOTE:

Standard English is not the best English. It is just like other dialects as it caters for communicative needs as other varieties do.

COMPETENCE AND PERFORMANCE

COMPETENCE

Is the linguistic knowledge possessed by native speakers of a language

OR

Language competence is the subconscious ability to judge the grammaticability of expressions as used in a certain

The knowledge enables the speaker to distinguish grammatical sentences from ungrammatical ones.

Native speakers acquire the linguistic system of their languages without realizing that rules are being learned.

PERFORMANCE

Language performance is the actual use of language in concrete situations

Competence and performance are related in that competence gives corrections to wrong expressions through performance

Performance may reflect competence but may also include speech errors due to slip of tongue, tiredness, drunkenness etc

Generally competence is the language knowledge which a person has while performance is the actual language use in practical situations

FIRST LANGUAGE/ MOTHER TONGUE (L1)

Mother tongue is the first language that a child acquires. It is a language a child masters while still at mother’s knee.

A mother tongue is not necessarily the mother tongue of one’s parents.

For example there are children who acquire Kiswahili as their first language while their parents have different mother tongues.

SECOND LANGUAGE

Is the language learnt or acquired after the first language been mastered. For example for most Tanzanians Kiswahili is their L2 while their native languages are their first language.

LANGUAGE COMMUNITY

Is a group of people who regard themselves as the speakers of the same language.

• How can we determine a speech community?

A community has;

Has the same culture

Shares the same dialect

They speak differently from other speech communities. For example West African English speakers have a speech community.

FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Is the language whose domains of uses are restricted

Some of its uses are for example to across frontiers or with tourists, listening broadcasts, commerce and travel.

It has lower or no status compared to L2

NATIONAL LANGUAGE

Is the language considered to be the main language of a nation. For example Kiswahili in Tanzania and French in France

LINGUA FRANCA

Is the language that facilitates communication among the people with different languages/varieties. For example Kiswahili is a Lingua Franca in Tanzania as it facilitates communication between people who belong to different ethnic communities.

Again English is the Lingua Franca of the world as it brings people with different linguistic  background together.

BILINGUALISM

Is a situation where a person or society speaks two languages.

A bilingual – is a person who speaks two languages. For example a person who is capable of speaking English and Kiswahili is bilingual.

A person becomes bilingual by being born by parents who speak two languages or by learning a foreign  or another language

DIAGLOSSIA

Is a situation where two different languages or language varieties co-exist in a community each having different social functions

In this situation one language/variety has a higher variety than another

A higher variety language is used for formal or serious matters in the society while the lower / language is used for informal uses such as conversation. For instance in Tanzania English and Kiswahili co-exist

English used as the medium of instruction in secondary schools and higher learning institutions while Kiswahili is a medium of instruction in primary schools. English here is considered to have higher status than Kiswahili

Again another level of diaglossia in Tanzania can be seen if Kiswahili and ethnic communities languages are examined

Here Kiswahili is regarded as of higher status than native languages

Functions of these are different. For example it is not a wonder to see the people with common native language conducting village meeting in Kiswahili.

COCKNEY

Is a variety of English spoken by a working class especially in the eastern end of London

It is considered as the language of unimportant people.

Characteristics of cockney

Phonology

• /v/ is pronounced as /w/ and /w/ as /v/

Eg. Vine and weal are pronounced as wine and veal

• /h/ is pronounced after ‘w’ . therefore there is no difference between while and wile, where and were etc.
• Omition of /h/ when it appears initially. Thus heart is pronounced as art

Spelling

Spelling differs as well

Eg. Abaht – about

Muvver – mother

Orl – all

Gawd – God

Syntax and usage

The grammar of cockney is non-standard

For instance

There is use of double negation

Eg. There aint nuffink like it ie There is nothing like it

Question tags are widely used to encourage agreement

Well, e knew orl abaht it, dinne? Ie well he knew well about it, didn’t he?

Done and seen are used for did and saw

Eg I done it yesterday ie I did it yesterday

JARGON

Is the type of language found in specific fields such law and medicine. Such language tends to use words and structures which are mainly understood by the members of the field.

It poses some difficulty to other people who do not belong to that field.

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The Status Of English In The World And In Tanzania

English has different status in different places of the world. In some places it is used as the first language, in others as the L2 while in others as the national language

ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE

English is an international language

What are the criteria for a language to be international?

The following are the factors that make a language international;

1. Number of speakers that a language has.

This means that it must be spoken or known by many people in the world. Such speakers include both native and non-native speakers. For example English has got more than 600 million speakers in the world

2. The extent to which the language is geographically dispersed.

Here we look at the number of continents in which the language is used or needed.english for example is used in almost all parts of the world. It is used as the world’s lingual franca.

3. The economic and political status of its native speakers

For instance the Americans and the British who speak English as native speakers are politically and economically worthwhile. So these people  have influence over other countries as theey control the world economy and politics.

4. To what extent is a medium for science, literature and important areas.

This is referred to as the language vehicular load. That is, the language of science, technology as well as scholarship

In summary, English meets all the criteria for a language to be regarded as international. Because of its status many people are busy learning it in different parts of the world Tanzania included.

FACTORS FOR A LANGAUGE TO BECOME A NATIONAL LANGUAGE

It must be spoken by the majority in the society. It must have a big number of native speakers.

It must be well documented language or variety. It must put in written form, well researched to meet the needs of that particular nation

It must be declared by the government in its language policy. A bill must be passed on language use limits

It must unite people against tribalism. In most cases countries choose a languge which will bring national unity.

Due to presence of tribalism some countries have opted for foreign languages to be their national language.

LANGUAGE POLICY IN TANZANIA AND THE USE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Language policy refers to government decision on what should be the status of a certain language in the country.

It is the policy that clearly shows different roles different languages have to play.

For example in Tanzania, Kiswahili and English are accepted to be the official languages

However in practice the status of English in Tanzania is somewhat confusing

There are people who regard English as a second language to Kiswahili while others regard it as it as a foreign language

Those who regard as the second language argue that English has many domain of uses.

For instance;

English is used in jobs advertisements

Official letters (including application letter)

Job interviews

Hospital prescriptions

Legal documentation

News papers and TV programmes

Those who regard it as a foreign language argue that the domains of English are now very limited. For instance it is rare to hear English in public places such as in buses, market places and in other social gatherings

The only place where English is heard is school. Even there English co-exist with Kiswahili.

ENGLISH & KISWAHILI IN SCHOOLS

• English is used as a medium of instruction in secondary schools and higher learning institutions.
• Kiswahili is used as medium of instruction in primary schools(except in English medium schools)

There is a debate as to whether English should continue with the status it has or be be replaced by Kiswahili

FOR THOSE WHO ARE IN FAVOUR OF ENGLISH ARGUE THAT;

1. English is an international communication medium which enables us to have access to science and technology

2. English is well researched and documented compared to Kiswahili

3. Kiswahili lacks necessary words in terminologies: eg law books, science books etc.

4. There is no enough capital to meet the cost of transition i.e from English to Kiswahili

5. Employment of foreign teachers would be easier without training them in Kiswahili

6. English is every one’s property today. It is no longer a colonial language.

7. In  different parts of the world. So there is no justification  for equating English with colonialism

THOSE WHO ARE IN FAVOUR OF KISWAHILI ARGUE THAT:-

1. English is a foreign language. Making student learn through a foreign language is Like colonizing their minds.

2. Students learn better when they use the language they know well. _making them continue learning through English which they do not know well, endangers education in Tanzania

3. Kiswahili is a language for African Identity. So we should teach using it to cherish Our heritage.

4. No language is endowed with scientific knowledge. Any language including Kiswahili can be the language of science and technology.

5. Already teachers teach using code-switching. In   Tanzania many teachers speak a lot of Kiswahili in the classrooms. So, we need  to formalize the use of Kiswahili.

CODE-MIXING AND CODE SWITCHING

Code-mixing

Refers to mixing of codes (Languages) within the same sentences or utterance.

Eg (i) Usiniforce tafadhali

(ii)Nikifika I will inform you.

Code switching

Refers to shifting from one language to another.

Eg.(i) sitaki kuongea maneno mengi. I mean I’m very tired.

• Usichelewe kurudi. Don’t come late please.

REASONS FOR CODE SWITCHING AND CODE MIXING

1. For emphatic reasons

Eg Usinisogelee. I say go away!

2. To explain something

For example in many secondary schools students discuss their subjects in Kiswahili and write in English.

3. Prestige – to show off that you know other languages which are more prestigious
4. Lack of proficiency in one language
5. Laxity of a speaker/ competence

ie where both languages are known.

6. To avoid offensive words or language
7. To exclude others from conversation

SITUATIONAL CODE-SWITCHING

Refers to switching from one language to another due to change of topic or participants.

For example two people who conduct conversation in Kihaya and later another person who does not understand Kihaya joins in. they will obvious switch to Kiswahili which is understood by all.

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